GREAT INVENTION OF TWENTY FIRST CENTURY

GREAT INVENTION OF TWENTY FIRST CENTURY

Long time ago, human lived traditionally by using their energy to solve their problem. Every occupation used to use traditional equipment to support them in working. For instances, an officer used typewriter and copied them by their own hand, or a farmer used a cow to plough their field. By the time, there has born so many scientists who bring innovation or new invention to cope human problems. Human intelligence in developing the technology gives a great impact for human. Technology makes us easier to get information from around the world, makes everything quickest, and makes the complication simpler. Here are some great inventions of 21^st century arranged based on their advantages.

Google takes the first place as great invention in this century. Google is a searching application that use for finding something quickly, either documents pictures, or videos. Google was found by Larry Page and Sergey Bill in 1998. Their office was firstly published in 2005. It means that Google is recently legitimated and used by people widely. Nowadays, there is a new innovation of searching something in Google. You can use Google Voice to find everything you look for, by saying “OK Google” and it will detect the sentences you look for automatically. In addition, there is Google Maps as the innovation of direct map. This application will help you to find out the way you want to go by out your direction and type your destination.

The second great innovation is Youtube. Youtube is kind of application that provides a lot of videos from around the world. This application is under auspices of technology information that found on February 2005 made by three Paypal Employees. The first step to use this application is you need to make your own account, so that you can post a video. While, to watch and download a video, you can just open this application and use it freely. But, if you want to subscribe and like a video, you need to connect your Youtube application to another account, such as Gmail or Email. But still, you need the internet connection. Every people around the world can easily share, download, and watch a video by using this application.

Iil, an automatic translator tool occupies the third position as great invention in this century. Iil was found in Japan few years ago. Right now, this tool provides about fifty languages, but there are only three languages are used, Such as Japanese, English, and French. The thing that makes this tool special is you can operate it without using internet connection. In addition, it has the same shape with Flashdisk, so it is able to carry in your pocket. When you are going to the other country, you can use Iil to help you talk with foreign people. It is very easy to use. You only need to press the button and say the words, phrases, or even a sentence right in front of the tapper, so it will detect whatever the language you use. This tool is sold about Rp. 2,7 Million per Unit.

The fourth invention must be listed by Sophia, a robot that shapes like human. Maybe the first impression that cross in your mind when we hear this invention is that Sophia is a name of a person. But wait, you are definitely wrong. Sophia is actually a female robot designed to able to speak even deliver speech in convention. Moreover, Sophia is created to imitate human expression. She is able to imitate about twenty two face expressions. She has the eyes made by a camera combined with Algorithm computer, so that it can record and recognise every object that she looks. Sophia was made by David Hanson on April 2015.

At last, the development of human thought creates and innovate new technology to cope human problems. In this Globalization era, it helps people to solve their problem easily. This quickest innovation caused by human requirement that always change time by time. Those technologies make everything which is complicated become more practice.

ANALYSIS OF THE CONSTITUENT OF WORD-FORM AND WORD-FAMILY, AND ITS PRODUCTIVITY IN ARTICLE “SAVING REINDEER AND A COMMUNITY IN MONGOLIA”

 

ANALYSIS OF THE CONSTITUENT OF WORD-FORM AND WORD-FAMILY, AND ITS PRODUCTIVITY IN ARTICLE “SAVING REINDEER AND A COMMUNITY IN MONGOLIA”

Salahuddin

Morphology, English Department, Faculty of Adab and Culture, State Islamic University of Sunan Kalijaga

Email Adress:

16150042@student.uin-suka.ac.id
 

ABSTRACT

The issue of morphological rules become more complicated when the complex words transformed to any further patterns. This makes the speakers confuse to decide and curious to know where the words are derived. The readers often found the similar words by figure out the same patterns or analysing the sound of the words. It is important to examine and give some examples to give the way for speakers or readers to decide by analysing the morphological problems and using the exist theory.

Keywords: Lexeme, Word-Form and Word-Family, Derivation, Inflection, Productivity, Restriction, Domain.

INTRODUCTION

This paper entirely examines about the classification of words and the constituent of the words morphologically or often call as Lexeme. In the other hand, here we will find out whether the words are productive or not, depend on the usage of the words. Firstly, it is begun by showing the data or samples words of article “Saving Reindeer and A Community in Mongolia” to examine and classify the type of the words, and on how the words are formed. Following, it is important to figure out whether the words are productive or not. The productivity is shown if the words routinely create new words.

Either word form or word-family is not apart from the morphology discussion, Bases and Affixes. Words may consist of two or more morphemes, such like in word beautifully consists of three morphemes “beauty”, “ful”, “-ly”. Automatically we conclude that lexeme “Beautifully” is the part word-family, because it shows the relation with Derivation, which will be discussed on the preface.

Additionally, this paper departs from curiosity about some words that appear in article “Saving Reindeer and A Community in Mongolia”, which probably have relation with word-form and word-family analyses.

According to the Understanding Morphology book written by Martin Haspelmath and Andrea D Sims explain that word-family is a word in a concrete sense. It is the various pattern of a lexeme. We know that actually word-family has the same meaning with word-form in this way, which both of them belong to one lexeme. This paper will examine an article “Saving Reindeer and A Community in Mongolia” in order to find out the classification of words, either the constituent or the productivity.

This paper is chosen as the object of resource because it contains some examples that we can use as the data to analyse. In the other hand, the data in this article is commonly used by the speaker, or often find in many articles and a reading book. The most important is that the readers can know and understand how the words are created, as the curiosity of people, so that the readers can easily recognize such example of word.

Methodology Research

This paper is using Quantitative Research Method to collect the data. In this method, the validity theory became references to figure out the next validity. This method assumes that every variable could be identified and measured by using objective and standard appliances. In this paper, the procedure of analysing data is started by identify the problem, literature study, identify and define the variable, hypothesis, and research question, gathering and quantification the data, analysing data, and the last interpret and communicate the research results. (Kuntjojo.2009:11)

Data Analyses Technique

Measurement Technique relates to quantitative method research (Kuntjojo 2009:35). In this paper, it collects all data that we need to analyses, and classify them into two parts, word-form and word-family. Firstly, it needs to explain the relating theory to analyse the data, and making the big outline by using the common examples. Then, it started using the data and analyse one and one. The results will be exposited in discussion part and takes the summary in the conclusion

Problem Statements

A word probably has such a lot of variation. This makes the readers sometimes consider whether those words belong to one word. According to the concept of lexemes, or what it call as the other paradigm of word, is the abstract sense of word that represent the core meaning of other words (Martin H. and Andrea D 2010:15). Thus, it would be interesting to examine those words and find out the constituent of the words and on how those words are formed. The most important here is the readers can determine and decide whether the list of words below is productive or not. The word-family of course some of them are productive, because they routinely produce the new word by put the affixes of the bases. While the word-form quite difficult to find the example, but here the author want to show some words that might have the productivity to create new word. And it is the issue that we will discuss here.

ANALITICAL THEORY

Lexemes, Word-Form and Word-Family

As the beginning. Let see at the examples below.

Both word-form and word-family belong to one lexeme. Here we assume that word “Read” as the lexeme has such a lot of various patterns. Of course definitely we can recognize that word Read surrounded by affixes, which are affixes –s, -r, and –ing. Word-form expresses notions of umber (singular-plural) and case (nominative, accusative, genitive). Word-form is more precisely belonging to the same lexeme express different grammatical functions, but the same core concepts.

In the other case, in example 1.2 shows the different pattern of word called Word-family. Word-family is a set of related lexemes that entirely changes the meaning and the word-classes, although they still belong to one lexeme. Lexeme Agree in this case is a verb and then changes its meaning as the result of the affixes around it. There are three affixes are used, -able, -ment, and –ly. All of them directly change the meaning and the word classes. Agreeable means that able to be agreed and transform to an adjective, agreement as the Noun pattern, and agreeably becomes the Adverb pattern of lexeme ‘Agree’.

Additionally, (Martin H. and Andrea D 2010:18) both word-form and word-family are distinguished into morphological relationship among words, which are word-form refers to Inflection, the technical term of the relation between word-form and lexeme but do not change the meaning of words, and word-family refers to Derivation, the term of relation between word-family and lexeme entirely changes the meaning and word-classes. Thus, either inflection or derivation, both are through the affixation process.

Base and Affixation

In other paradigm, base and lexeme is two different things. All word that exists in dictionary must be considered as part of lexemes, which it later shares the new pattern of word, for instance lexeme live has other forms, live, lives, lived and living. All of the words are the part of word-form. In other sense, Base is the main part of word. Simply, the word lives according to the previous example, contain two morpheme, morpheme live and –s as the plural pattern. The morpheme live here is the base of the word. We can say that Base relates to affixation paradigm.

While, it has explained that affixes are all shorter morphemes that attaches to a word or main part of word (Base). There are so many kinds of affixes, such as Suffix that attaches on ending of bases, Prefix that attaches on preceding of bases, Circumfix that occurs on both sides of the bases, or an Infix that occurs inside the bases. (Martin H. and Andrea D 2010:20)

Productivity

Productivity always becomes a big issue to examine in morphology. First of all, we must understand that productivity of morphology considers about how a word can produce new words routinely and why the words attached to the following morphemes. For examples, does word Beauty can produce some new words? To create a new word whether it becomes a noun or anything else, it must be attached by morphemes –ful to be an adjective. The last question is -‘is there only some words can produced by the word beauty?’ here is what we call as a restriction.

Here, the most important is the knowledge of the speakers as well. we agree that we do not entirely understand what causes a morphological rule to be productive or unproductive, it depends on the knowledge of speakers about the language. We often find the argument that the productivity only happened to the word-family paradigm, and how about the word-form? Does it happen to word-form? In this paper, we will try to examine some examples to answer those questions.

HYPHOTESIS RESULTS

According to the article “Saving Reindeer and A Community in Mongolia”, we classify the words into two outlines, word-form and word-family.

Word-Family	Word-Form
Community Survival Healthy Organization Foundation Partnership International Government Economically Formally Development Environment	Depends Leaders Told Visited Animals Left Gave Economics Travellers Organized

Table 1. Classification of Words

Constituent of Words

Let see how the words are formed by adding the affixes in the last of bases, and it will be explained apart, the constituent of word-family and word-form.

Constituent of Word-Family

Firstly, in tables below show the hypothesis about the constituents of words, consist of word-family and word-form arranged based on the affixes.

Word-family	Bases	Affixes
Development Environment Government	Develop Environment Govern	-ment
Education	Educate	-ion
Formally Economically	Formal Economic	-lly
Organization Foundation	Organize Found	-ation
Survival International	Survive Internation	-al
Partnership	Partner	-ship
Community	Commune	-ity
Healthy	Health	-y

Table 2. Constituent of Words

The constituent of word-form

Here some words of the article that probably is the parts of word-form.

Word-form	Bases	Affixes
Depends Leaders Told  Visited Animals Left Gave Economics Travellers Organized	Depend Leader Tell Visit Animal Leave Give Economic Traveller Organize	-s -s -ed -s -s -s -ed

Table 3. The constituent of word-form

DISCUSSION

The point here is the formation process of those words. Word-family is more opportune to produce new words, according to their bases and the elements formation. Later, examine whether those words on the tables are productive or not. Let see how the words are created.

Productivity in Word-Family

Word-family is a set of related lexemes that could change the meaning and the word-class (Martin H. and Andrea D 2010:17). When a base attached by affixes, it can change the meaning, either the word-class. There are a lot of affixes that change the word-class of word.

Does word environment have the same constituent of words government and development? When we check out our dictionary, Environment is the part of word-family. It is proved that because there is lexeme ‘environs’ in real dictionary. Phoneme s actually does not mean showing the plural pattern, but it is the base of word Environment. The phoneme s then faded on the following suffix –ment.

                   Environs (noun) + suffix –ment (state/result) = environment (noun)

When it transform to the other form, is it able to provide any further word? Word environment in this way can be related to other words.

Base	Affixes	Words	Derivation (Word-Class)	Meaning
Environs	-ment	Environment	Noun-Noun	The natural place in which people, plants and animals live.
Environment	-al	Environmental	Noun-Adjective	Relates to everything about environment
Environmental	-ism	Environmentalism	Adjective-Noun	Concern about the natural environment
	-ist	Environmentalist	Adjective-Noun	A person who  is concerned about the natural environment
	-ly	Environmentally	Adjective-Adverb	In a way that is connected with environment

Table 4. The Productivity of Word Government

Simply, we can conclude that every lexeme that ended with consonant have an opportunity to attach by affixes –ment, such like in lexemes develop and govern. Following, the lexeme that ended by consonant –l, for instance in word environmental, have the opportunity to attach by suffix –ism, but some of them are not able to be attached, such like in word developmental and governmental could not be attached by suffix –ism, it means that there are restrictions for suffix –ism. Either suffix –ly only attach to some lexemes, for instances environmentally and developmentally, but not for governmental that could not attach by suffix –ly. It is all about the knowledge of the speakers.

Moreover, word education derived from lexeme or the base educate. But why does educate could not be attached by suffix –ment? It because it ended by vowel –e. as we explained before, suffix –ment only attached to base that ended by consonant. But, in this way, suffix –ion can attach to every lexeme that ended by both consonants and vowels, such like in word action and abduction which is derived from bases act and abduct. It is just the same with environment, the word education has the opportunity to transform to any further words, education-al, educational-ist, and educational-ly. It means that the word-family education is productive. Either in word international, it derived from base intern added by suffix –ation. Following, it has another pattern, such as international, international-ism, international-ist, international-ly, international-ize, and the complex one is internationaliz-ation. The Ending –al of English word for example in word international freely attach by suffix –ize –ist, and –ly because all the English suffixes only attach to a strong-weak rhythm. (Martin H. and Andrea D 2010:17)

The word survival may different with the examples above. It derived from base survive and followed by suffix –al. but look at the previous example, which is the –al suffix modify the noun to adjective, but word in this case it changes the survive which it is the part of verb to be the Noun, survival. It means that they have the different paradigm here. And then, when it has added by suffix –al, it could not produce any further words, such like in word international-ization, but the base “survive” is able.

Base	Affixes	Words	Derivation (Word-Class)	Meaning
Survive	-able	Survivable	Verb-Adjective	Able to be survived
Survive	-or	Survivor	Verb-Noun	A person who continues to live
Survive	-al	Survival	Verb-Noun	The state of continuing to live or exist
Survival	-ism	Survivalism	Noun-Noun	The practice of preparing for a dangerous or unpleasant situation
	-ist	Survivalist	Noun-Noun	A person who prepares for a dangerous or unpleasant situation

Table 5. The Constituent of Word-family ‘survival’

The more specific differentiation here is almost of the base modified into noun, except survivable. According to the explanation above, the question then why do the word survival which is ended by English suffix –al does not create like the word internationalize? In fact that both are ended by English suffix –al. It needs to be noted that this is what exactly the meaning of Restriction. There are only a set of domain that effectively create the new words.

Let see where the word community is derived and the related words.

Base	Affixes	Words	Derivation (Word-Class)	Meaning
Commune	-ity	Community	Noun –Noun	All the people who live in a particular area, country, etc.
Any other relating words
Commune	-ism	Communism	Noun-Noun	A politic movement that believes in an economic system in which the state controls the means of producing everything on behalf of the people.
	-ist	communist	Noun-Noun	A person who believes in or supports communism

Table 6. The productivity of word-family ‘community’

It seems like almost of the words in word-family table mostly added by suffixes –ist and –ism. It is not different with other lexemes, such as formally, that derived from lexeme formal and able to produce any further word just like on the examples above, form- formal -formally- formality, formalize-formalization-formalism, formalist. All examples above show that they may be the part of the complex word, which means that they are able and routinely create the new word, especially for instance most adjectives like words formal, productive, objective, rationa, active are able to attach by English suffix –ity, but very difficult to attach on base which the bases are the part of verb and noun. The English suffix –ity is not particularly productive, and the ratios will be shown in the conclusion. (Martin H. and Andrea D 2010:17)

Following, let examine word partnership. Simply, word partnership derived from base partner and added by English suffix –ship. In the first hypothesis, the English suffix –ship only attach to a base which is the part of noun, and it is true because there is no more examples that show the other word-classes expect noun followed by English suffix –ship, such like in words relationship, membership, ownership, internship, connoisseurship, and proprietorship. The bases is transforming from noun to noun. The English suffix –ship changes the meaning and showing about status, condition or position. The bases ‘partner’ could not create any further word except by adding English suffix –ship in the last of words. It just the same with ownership, membership, and proprietorship that show about the status or position. In the other hand, the word-family internship, hardship, and friendship show about a condition of things. a rule is said as productive if the domain productively create the new word from the base, but the base ‘partner’ only stuck on one variation when it attached by suffix –ship. Thus, the conclusion is the English suffix –ship is not particularly productive.

The next becomes more difficult to decide. In the word-family table above, purposely the word Healthy located in the end of lists. It is not because of the complexity, but on how to decide the base of the word healthy. First of all, there are some words that have the same pattern like word healthy, for instances word rainy, funny, and dirty, which they are ended by English suffix –y. they are also in the same word class, as adjectives. When a word added by English suffix –y, it change the word-class from Noun to adjective, and the meaning itself.

Nouns	Suffix	Adjectives
Rain	-y	Rainy
Fun		Funny
Dirt		Dirty
Health		Healthy

Table 7. Adjectives derived from verbs

It is definitely right that word Health is the part of noun, but health is not actually the base of word healthy. There is other suffix before it is formed to be an adjective.

Heal (V)ð Health (N)ðHealthy (Adj)

According to understanding morphology book about processing restrictions, it writes that when an affix occurs often in words of the second type, the lexical (Martin H. and Andrea D 2010:123)

The word healthy has proved that it is formed by the second type by of base heal by adding the English suffix –y. most of the examples above show the same thing. But when the base added by suffix –th and transformed to the second type, it does not mean that it is able to change to the third type freely. For instance words width and strength that have the same pattern with word health. It transformed from verb to the noun. There is no word strenghty and widthy, it proved that there is something like a restriction of English suffix –y. the base Heal is not the part of Domain.

Productivity in Word-Form

In the previous explanation, word-form relates to inflection (inflection morphology), the relationship between word-form of a lexeme. When a lexeme added by some suffixes, such as –s to show the plural pattern of a noun, or in a verb if the subject (nominative) is singular, the verb must be added by English suffix –s. For instance is ‘Andi brings me some foods’. The verb bring added by suffix –s when the subject is singular, and the noun food added by suffix –s because the food is plural or more than one food, by putting the determiner ‘some’. The other paradigm is lexeme may have the other pattern, it relates to the tenses of English. There are three outlines of tenses, present, past, continuous and future. The English suffix –ed modified the present tense to the past or future or sometime it is entirely changed, and suffix –ing to explain the continuous pattern.

According to the list of the table 3, let examine where the words are derived and will classify based on their word-classes, focus on the inflection.

Nouns	Suffix	Alternation
Traveller	-s	Travellers
Leader		Leaders
Animal		Animals
Economic		Economics

Table 8. Inflection of Noun

Verbs	Suffixes	Alternation
Visit	-ed	Visited
Depend	-s	Depends
Organize	-ed	Organized

Table 9. Inflection of Verb (Tenses)

Inflection in this case, more specifically show about the alternation of words as the effect of tenses. Despite, there are a lot kinds of inflection, such as -s noun plural, -'s noun possessive, -s verb present tense third singular person, -ing verb present participle/gerund, -ed regular verb simple past tense and past participle, -en irregular verb present/past perfect participle, -er comparative adjective, -est superlative adjective. All this kinds of inflection belong to tenses form in English.

It is different when the lexeme changes the word-class, like in word understand (Verb) can be changed the word-class to Noun and Adjective by adding the English suffix –ing, Understanding. This paradigm relates to derivation. To be noted that the inflection rules especially tenses form will be used when it is being in a sentences, it depends on the subject (nominative) and the tenses we use.

While, the inflection of noun has the other paradigms, it relates to plural singular pattern when the lexemes added by English suffix –s. so, it does not need to be analysed

The most common inflection is the past tense form, like in the examples of table, organized for instance. The question then does word organized can be transformed to any other words or is there any productivity of those words that categorized as word-form just like in word-family? Now, let figure out the answers.

Firstly, the speakers probably have ever found words such like words unorganized and disorganized before. Simply, it can be concluded that the base of the words is organized. It contains the base organize and added by suffix –ed. it shows the same pattern that has been explained before, past tense. It is commensurate with the sentence of the text, “The Itgel foundation organized a meeting between community members and government representatives”. Unfortunately, there is another pattern that shows the word unorganized acts as an Adjective, for instance in phrase, Organized Crime. Organized here acts as the adjective that explain the crime. So, it is not always the word organized is the part of verb, depends on the words surround it. But, when the word organized then added by English prefix –un and –dis, it does not change the word-class, Adjective.

The other examples are in words restrictedness, self-startedness, assuredness, uncomplicatedness, and open-endedness. First of all, the bases of those words are derived from verbs, for instance uncomplicatedness.

 

Table 10. Morphological Tree

The core or the base is complicate which it is the part of verb. It started when the base added by suffix –ed, but in this case, it entirely changes the word-class, from verb to adjective, uncomplicated. From here, it clearly explains that the word uncomplicated and all part of those words above is the part of word-family. In addition, when it is added by suffix –ness, it indicates that they are the part of word-family.

The English suffix –ness attach to a lexeme, which is being the part of adjective, such like in word assuredness, so the base of the word is actually assured. When a lexeme added by suffix –ness it changes the word-class to be noun. It still considered that actually word-form really difficult to transform to any further words. It is because the productivity rules only occur on word-family paradigm.

CONCLUSION

At the end of this paper, it is clear that the productivity of word-form could not be proved, but fully explained about the restriction of word-family. This paper entirely is not arguing about whether word-form is the same with word-family that is able to produce the new words. The acceptable statement is it depends on the speaker’s knowledge of a language. So, that is why this paper does not really focus on the productivity of word-form, but only proving about some example that may confuse the speakers.

Word-family is a big issue that always being discussed in every paper appears. The conclusion here is there are some rules that can be used as the consideration whether a word is productive or not, it called as Domain. Domain is the set of base to which a rule could apply in productivity principle. This domain can be applied and produce the new words. All morphological rules are equally productive, but they are not equally restricted. The English suffix –ness is only attached to an adjective, -full only attach to an adjective, etc. this is actually the meaning of restriction. (Martin H. and Andrea D 2010:115)

There is a term that shows the proportion and the presentage of words with an affix, called Parsing Ratio.

Affixes	Parsing ratio	Productivity
-ence	0.1	0.0
-ity	0.17	0.1
-ate	0.31	0.3
-dom	0.5	0.2
-ness	0.51	0.8
-ish	0.58	0.5
-like	0.68	38.1
-proof	0.8	5.5
-less	0.86	1.7

      Table 11 Parsing Ratio

It explains that the higher parsing ratio is being activated in the lexicon relatively more often. It is able to be attached to a lexeme and productively create new word. While, the lower one means that it is unproductively create any further words, or there is a restriction of the affixes, such English suffixes –ity and and –ness onland –ness only attach to a base that are the parts of adjectives.

The next is after the parsing ratio has showed, it can be differed that there are only some bases of word-family that able to create new words based on the article “Saving Reindeer and A Community in Mongolia”.

Bases	Word-family
Develop	Development
Environ	Environment
Govern	Government
Organize	Organization
Educate	Education
Survive	Survival
Commune	Community

Table 12. Productive Word in Article “Saving Reindeer and A Community in Mongolia”

REFERENCES

H. Martin & D. Andrea, (2010). Understanding Morphology Second Edition. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data.

Bram B. Three Models of English Morphology. Sanata Dharma University.

Kuntjaja, (2009). Metodologi Penelitian.